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The Burden of Expanding Plastic Production and Use: A Great Product or a Horrific Product? Your Choice

July 13, 2022 By Watershed Protection Team

By Carol L. Armstrong, Ph.D., ABN, Friends of Heinz Refuge, Board of Directors

Did you know that right here in our region, we have a wildland that supports over 300 species of birds, of which you will see and hear over 40 on any day? The marshes at the John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge spanned almost 6,000 acres in the time of Lenape stewardship of the land, and now it consists of 1,000 acres where massive biodiversity exists, some endangered species survive, and beautiful streams flow into tidal wetlands. It is a place where you can feel you can get lost, all the time being but a stone’s throw from Philadelphia and the dense suburbs of Delaware County. But there is a hidden problem: plastic debris is inundating the Refuge (Photo copyright: Kim Sheridan).

Darby Creek. Photo Copyright: Kim Sheridan

To manage the plastic debris, the Refuge has both public and non-public clean-ups throughout the year. Volunteers help Refuge staff to remove the hundreds of tires, layers of plastic debris on flood plains, plastic stuck in the riparian trees and shrubs after a storm, and thick accumulation of plastics in coves, marsh, and aquatic plants. The problem is most apparent at low tide (photo copyright: Mary Trzeciak). 

Plastics found during low tide. Photo Copyright: Mary Trzeciak

How do we prevent this sort of pollution? Personal evolution comes from reading about the problem, watching the webinars from the Friends of Heinz Refuge (see videos on our Facebook), reading the Friends of Heinz Refuge e-Newsletter, and joining our Plastics Working Group meetings, held monthly. 

One of our Board members, whose career was in business and not involved in environmental restoration, recently admitted that his view of plastic had changed completely since he joined the Board, and now he “can’t stand plastic.” He is horrified at the stuff, and now refuses to purchase plastic drinking containers. 

In three of the public cleanups at the Refuge, volunteers sorted the types and number of debris using the Ocean Conservancy’s data form. Of plastics, metal, glass, and paper debris, more than 99% were some form of plastic, which, over the next hundreds of years, will flake off microplastics and leach into the water the chemicals that make plastic have the features producers want (e.g., color, flexibility, weight, heat/light resistance), long before the plastic actually decomposes back into organic matter. Plastics begin to break down into microplastics and leach chemicals as soon as they are in the environment.

It’s difficult to make the paradigm shift that this board member made, because we are so accustomed to thinking that we cannot live without plastics. The 4% increase in the production of plastics each year means that it is increasing due to supply and not due to demand. The increasing number of items that are packaged in plastic can be witnessed in any store, often in multiple layers of plastic. For example, cheeses are sold in see-through plastic boxes rather than wrapped in paper, bakery items are all packaged in some amount of plastic, condiments and drinks leave few choices in glass rather than plastic, and organic produce is difficult to find without plastic packaging. There are zero waste businesses dedicated to transforming industries to reusable containers or alternate materials, and they find the uphill road very steep. 

In the U.S., plastic that is recycled has declined from 7 to 9% to 5 to 6%, according to the most recent reports from the EPA and the U. S. Department of Energy. 100% of plastic waste is incinerated in some towns such as Harrisburg, and this practice is  increasing in many cities. Some “chemical recycling” is emerging from burning plastics for energy, which increases the demand for plastic waste, results in more toxic air pollution, and increases greenhouse gas emissions. By 2050, humans will have produced more than 28.5 billion tons of plastic, and we will be dealing with four times more plastic production than currently exists. Borrowing from L-M Miranda’s Hamilton: “Do you support this Earth? Of course. Then defend it.”

The key is to remember that there is always something that each person can do: 

  1. Make purchasing decisions based on the presence or relative amount of plastic in the packaging; 
  2. Do your own home assessment of the sources and amounts of your waste versus recycling (now in Pennsylvania mainly limited to clear or white #1 and #2). The EPA and California provide online instructions for zero waste practices, and a simple site for home is: https://www.thezerowastecollective.com/post/how-to-do-a-trash-audit-at-home;
  3. Work towards cutting in half (or more) the amount that you put out in trash and recyclables;
  4. Avoid plastic sheeting and synthetic textiles used in landscaping, sediment/erosion control, blankets and rugs, and personal clothing as these plastics are filling our air, soil, and water, and there are alternatives for all.  The presence of plastics in our indoor air is disturbing at estimates of 30% of dust;
  5. Give up thin, single-use plastic bags and drinking containers forever; and
  6. Ask your town to ban single-use plastics. 

— By Carol L. Armstrong, Ph.D., ABN, Friends of Heinz Refuge, Board of Directors

Filed Under: Education, Plastic Free July, Watershed

The Tale of Two Streams

June 25, 2022 By Anna Willig

Every four weeks, the Watershed Protection Program heads over to East Goshen to visit two branches of Ridley Creek near the Goshenville Blacksmith Shop. We trudge down the road to our first site, RC1, which lies in the main stem of Ridley Creek. We hop in the creek, take measurements, collect samples, and then we walk about 150 feet to our next site, WBRC1, West Branch Ridley Creek, where we do it all over again. Even though these two sample sites are right next to each other, WBRC1 is in a completely different creek. Just downstream from these two sample sites, the West Branch merges into Ridley Creek, and the waters from the sample sites flow together as one.

Ridley Creek

In many ways, these two streams are identical. The amount of water flowing through them is nearly the same. Also similar in size is the size of land they drain. Their banks are lined by both trees and shrubs, with a few patches of clearing. The stream beds are rocky along with some sand and mud near the banks. Given all of these similarities, it would be easy to imagine that the water quality is similar at these two sites, as well.

image preview
West Branch Ridley Creek

However, as the Watershed Protection Team discovered, once we started looking at the water chemistry, we found that the two streams are quite different. Immediately, we noticed differences in specific conductivity. Specific conductivity measures the ease at which electricity can move through water, and pure water is a terrible conductor, meaning it has low specific conductivity. So when we find that specific conductivity is high in water, then that tells us that there are pollutants present. Comparing WBRC1 and RC1, we found that the specific conductivity is much higher in WBRC1 than RC1, meaning the water quality is much lower in WBRC1. However, specific conductivity cannot tell us which pollutants are in the water–it can only indicate that there are pollutants.  

Specific Conductivity Data for RC1 and WBRC1

Looking deeper into the chemistry, we found that WBRC1 contains higher concentrations of chlorides, nitrogen, and phosphorus, all of which increase specific conductivity. So where are they coming from? For chlorides, the answer is road salts. After road salts are applied in winter, they runoff into streams and groundwaters, where they can persist throughout the year, leading to higher concentrations of chlorides year round. For nitrogen and phosphorus, the answer is a little more complicated. They can come from a few different sources, most commonly fertilizers, leaky septic and sewer systems, and animal waste. Elevated concentrations of chlorides, nitrogen, and phosphorus are concerning because these pollutants can threaten the survival of sensitive stream organisms, such as mussels, trout, and stream insects. 

RC1 and WBRC1 Chloride Data

However, this poses more questions: why are there higher concentrations of salts and nutrients at WBRC1? How could water chemistry at two sites only 150 feet apart from each other be so different? To understand where these contaminants are coming from, we needed to look at what is going on in the land upstream of each sample site. And what we found is a difference in impervious surfaces.

Phosphorus Bar Graph
Nitrogen Bar Graph

Impervious surfaces are any surfaces that water cannot directly pass through, such as roads, sidewalks, parking lots, driveways, and buildings. These surfaces have several direct and indirect impacts on water quality. Many impervious surfaces are treated with road salt in the winter, and any rain or snow that hits these surfaces will carry that salt into the stream, increasing chloride concentrations. Impervious surfaces also reflect human activity in an area. Generally, the more impervious surfaces in an area, the more humans, and with more humans comes more fertilizer applications on lawns and gardens and more septic and sewer systems, all of which can flow into streams. As a result, there is a strong relationship between the amount of impervious surface cover and the pollutants that drain into a stream system.

We found that of the land that drains into WBRC1, 20% of that area is covered by impervious surfaces, as compared with RC1, where only 14% of the area is covered by impervious surfaces. While 6% may seem like a small difference, it is large enough to account for the difference in water quality of these two streams. This tells us that for Ridley Creek to maintain its health and water quality, we need to strive to stay below 20% impervious surfaces, and maybe even less than that. 

image preview
Catchments draining into West Branch Ridley Creek (WBRC1) and main stem Ridley Creek (RC1) sampling sites. Note the dense impervious surface cover in the WBRC1 catchment compared to the RC1 catchment.

The story of these two streams can be a hopeful one, and there are many lessons to be learned. If we can keep the amount of impervious surfaces down, we can protect water quality, even at an incredibly local scale. The more land we can protect as open space, the better the water quality in our streams and rivers. 

In addition to protecting land, we as individuals can also reduce the impact that impervious surfaces have on streams by doing the following:

  1. Limiting the amount of road salt used in the winter or sweeping up road salt after storms pass. This is a great way to reduce the amount of salt entering streams. 
  2. Reducing fertilizer use and avoiding applying fertilizers before rainstorms.
  3. Planting rain gardens alongside roads and driveways to help collect and filter stormwater, further reducing the amount of salts and nutrients entering streams. Native flowers, shrubs, and trees are great at absorbing excess nutrients and salts before they enter streams, and planting more of these plants will go a long way towards improving water quality.  
  4. Finding more tips here: Healthy Streams Start with Healthy Landscapes.

No matter how far away you are from a stream, any action you can take will make a difference.  

— By Watershed Conservation Associate Anna Willig

Sources:

Baker, M. E., Schley, M. L., & Sexton, J. O. (2019). Impacts of Expanding Impervious Surface on Specific Conductance in Urbanizing Streams. Water Resources Research, 55(8), 6482–6498. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019WR025014

Morse, C. C., Huryn, A. D., & Cronan, C. (2003). Impervious Surface Area as a Predictor of the Effects of Urbanization on Stream Insect Communities in Maine, U.S.A. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 89(1), 95–127. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025821622411

Filed Under: Nature, Science, Watershed

A Cycle of Give and Take

June 24, 2022 By Watershed Protection Team

By Watershed Protection Program Co-Op Sarah Busby

Within our streams, there are many players that work to create a functioning, thriving ecosystem. From the tall trees that hang overhead at the bank’s edge, providing cooling shade and abundant habitat, to charismatic animals like the beaver that literally shape the movement of the stream, some species play a more visible role than others. However, there are plenty more individuals hard at work behind the scenes, — or rather, below the surface of the stream. One such character is the freshwater mussel. Sometimes mistaken for a stone, this unassuming animal quietly resides at the bottom of our streams, often going unnoticed. While an individual mussel may be overlooked, their dramatic impact on a stream is impossible to miss when they work together.

One of many Elliptio complanata mussels found in our very own Crum Creek during a recent mussel survey. Photo by Sarah Busby

Freshwater mussels begin their life in a curious fashion, highly dependent on the fish in their communities. During reproduction, female mussels release packets of larval mussels, or glochidia, carefully timed with the encounter of a suitable host fish. After release, the larval mussels must attach to the gills of their host to survive. Once the larvae have secured a ride, they will travel with their host until they grow big enough to go off on their own, which may take up to a few weeks. When ready to depart, the mussels drop off and settle down into the riverbed. Host fish not only provide a safe haven for the larval mussels to develop in, but also allow for them to disperse much greater distances than freshwater mussels could ever go on their own. While glochidia do not cause harm to their host in most cases, the obligate parasite owes much to the hosts they grow up in. Though freshwater mussels are quick to give back to their neighbors once they come into adulthood.

Freshwater mussels are constantly filtering through water to breathe and feed. Typically, they sit partially buried into the substrate, siphoning in water. As water flows through their gills, they filter out bacteria, algae, phytoplankton, detritus, and other small organic particles to feed on. In this process, they also filter out pollutants from the water, accumulating the contaminants into their own bodies.

The filter-feeding activities of mussel populations greatly improves the water quality of the bodies of water they inhabit. This is beneficial to the rest of their local community. The fecal pellets they expel provide food for other invertebrates, and the mussels themselves are consumed by fish, birds, and mammals alike. Additionally, their shells provide shelter and habitat for aquatic invertebrates like caddisflies, midges, and other insects that fish rely on for sources of food. Much like the fish who sheltered them in their vulnerable state, an adult mussel provides for its community throughout its entire lifetime of up to a century, and even beyond when only its shell remains.

Mussel by Sarah Busby

Freshwater mussels have a long history of providing not only for their aquatic communities, but for humans as well. These mussels were a major food source for many prehistoric [1] and pre-colonial people in North America. Multiple Native American tribes have mussel harvests that date back to over 10,000 years ago. The shells were used for creating tools and jewelry. Before the invention of plastic, buttons were also made from the shells of mussels. The mentioned uses were in addition to the ecological service mussels provide by improving the quality of our water sources. While the cultural use of mussels has shifted over time, this critical service upholds its relevance.

Now in modern times, freshwater mussels are more vulnerable than ever before. From habitat degradation, pollution and impaired water quality, mussels face threats on multiple fronts — many of which are human imposed. As many native host fish species decline, the mussels follow close behind.

Currently, freshwater mussels are considered the most endangered group of organisms in [2] the country. It is our turn to provide for the mussels and the communities that come with them. Protecting the mussels means protecting our rivers and streams. Current efforts are being made to reintroduce [3] freshwater mussels into our streams and foster their growth through research and restoration. But success of these efforts is brought to fruition through community support. It starts with appreciating the role mussels play in a thriving ecosystem and follows by embracing our own part in it.[4] 

— By Watershed Protection Program Co-Op Sarah Busby

Sources:

About freshwater mussels. Pacific Northwest Native Freshwater Mussel Workgroup. (n.d.). Retrieved June 6, 2022, from https://pnwmussels.org/about-freshwater-mussels/

Freshwater Mussels. Center for Biological Diversity. (n.d.). Retrieved June 6, 2022, from https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/freshwater_mussels/

Freshwater mussels. Partnership for the Delaware Estuary. (2020, July 17). Retrieved June 6, 2022, from https://delawareestuary.org/science-and-research/freshwater-mussels/

Jaramillo, C. (2018, May 2). With nation’s first city-owned Mussel Hatchery, Philly employing bivalves in battle to improve water quality. WHYY. Retrieved June 6, 2022, from https://whyy.org/articles/with-nations-first-city-owned-mussel-hatchery-philly-employing-bivalves-in-battle-to-improve-water-quality/

Mussels and Us Prehistory. FMCS – Freshwater Mussels. (n.d.). Retrieved June 6, 2022, from https://molluskconservation.org/MUSSELS/Prehistory.html

Strayer, D. L. (2017). What are freshwater mussels worth? Freshwater Mollusk Biology and Conservation, 20(2), 103–113. https://doi.org/10.31931/fmbc.v20i2.2017.103-113

Wimberly, B. (2021, August 26). The “mussel” Behind the delaware river watershed’s clean water. Audubon Pennsylvania. Retrieved June 6, 2022, from https://pa.audubon.org/news/%E2%80%9Cmussel%E2%80%9D-behind-delaware-river-watershed%E2%80%99s-clean-water


Filed Under: Nature, Watershed

Dragonflies: Nature’s Most Successful Predator

June 23, 2022 By Watershed Protection Team

By Watershed Protection Program Co-Op Sarah Busby

With their flashy colors, compound eyes, and two sets of wings, dragonflies can be found in abundance, flying around wetlands in the summer months. But hidden behind this charismatic insect lies one of nature’s most successful predators. While hunting prey, dragonflies have a catch rate of 95%, higher than any other animal observed. The secret to their success lies in the many unique adaptations they have accumulated throughout their evolution, including aspects of their eyesight and flight. However, their journey as predators begins well before their aerial emergence at the bottom of our streams. It is here where the dragonfly spends most of its life in its larval, or nymph stage.

Dragonfly nymphs develop in the water anywhere from 2 or 3 months to 1 or 2 years, depending on the species. During this time, nymphs will prey on anything they can catch. Other insect larvae, worms, crustaceans, snails, tadpoles, and even small fish are all fair game for the dragonfly. To catch their prey, dragonfly nymphs have evolved a unique, extendable hinged jaw, or labium, that can shoot out faster than most prey can react. In fact, this creepy arm-like projection is credited as part of the inspiration for H. R. Giger’s Xenomorph design from the movie Alien.

A dragonfly nymph catching its prey Alien-Style. (Josh Cassidy/KQED)

In order to keep up with its prey and avoid predation itself, the dragonfly nymph uses a unique mode of transportation called jet propulsion. No other insect uses such a strategy for locomotion. Nymphs will intake water from their anal valve, extract oxygen from it to breathe, and sharply expel the water back out the anal valve to propel themselves forward. This tri-leaflet valve is surprisingly similar in structure to the human tricuspid heart valve and has even been studied as inspiration for prosthetic heart valve designs.

As they develop, dragonfly nymphs will molt 5 to 14 times until fully grown. As they approach their final larval molt, nymphs will sit in shallow water to prepare, transitioning from breathing water to air. They then emerge from the water, climbing up tall vegetation in the stream or nearby the bank, searching for a nice vantage point to begin their transformation. Here, they will pump and redistribute their body fluids, slowly pushing themselves out of their larval skin. Once emerged, they leave behind an empty cast of this larval skin, or exuvial.

Dragonfly

After their extravagant emergence, dragonflies will take off on their maiden flight. A dragonfly’s first flight is typically weak and short lived, making them particularly vulnerable to other predators currently. But as their body and wings harden overtime, they reach their peak predator performance. Once fully developed, dragonflies are ready to take to the skies as masters of flight. With independent control of its fore and hind wings, the highly maneuverable insect can hover and fly in any direction, including backwards.

In addition to their flying skills, dragonflies are equipped with a nervous system working just as fast. They have the ability to fixate on their prey and predict its future location. In this manner, they can intercept prey midair with extreme accuracy. This ability is complemented by their impressive eyesight. Each eye is made up of thousands of units called ommatidia that span across most of the insect’s head. As a result, they have nearly 360-degree vision, with the exception of a small blind spot directly behind them. Their unique vision also serves as a model that multiple researchers are looking to mimic in developing artificial eyes.

The muse of both science fiction and medical invention, these precise predators demonstrate just one of the many treasures our wetlands house. By preserving our wetlands, we ensure that dragonflies can continue to inspire awe and innovation for generations to come.

— By Watershed Protection Program Co-Op Sarah Busby

Sources:

Douglas, E. (2014, July 14). There are aliens among us. The Guardian. Retrieved May 31, 2022, from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/the-northerner/2014/jul/14/burbage-south-yorkshire-aliens-among-us

Evolution, paleontology, and classification. (n.d.). Retrieved June 2, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/animal/Odonata/Evolution-paleontology-and-classification

Gonzalez-Bellido, P. T., Peng, H., Yang, J., Georgopoulos, A. P., & Olberg, R. M. (2012). Eight pairs of descending visual neurons in the dragonfly give wing motor centers accurate population vector of prey direction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(2), 696-701. doi:10.1073/pnas.1210489109

Life cycle and biology. British Dragonfly Society. (2022, April 29). Retrieved May 31, 2022, from https://british-dragonflies.org.uk/odonata/life-cycle-and-biology/

Pannett, R. (2015, October 06). Scientists tap dragonfly vision to build a better bionic eye. Retrieved June 2, 2022, from https://www.wsj.com/articles/scientists-tap-dragonfly-vision-to-build-a-better-bionic-eye-1444055235

Perkins, R. (2018, July 17). Dragonfly larvae inspire new designs for prosthetic heart valves. Caltech. Retrieved May 31, 2022, from https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/dragonfly-larvae-inspire-new-designs-prosthetic-heart-valves-82858

Filed Under: Nature, Watershed

Beavers Beyond the Dam

June 22, 2022 By Watershed Protection Team

By Watershed Protection Program Co-Op Catherine Quinn

Beavers are known and loved as one of North America’s favorite stream architects. With historic removals of these lovely creatures, we are only just now grasping how important they are in shaping our freshwater ecosystems, which encompasses all streams, rivers, lakes, and ponds, as well as the surrounding land. In food chains, removing any level will alter populations of other levels. For instance, if a species of fish is removed from a stream, populations of macro-invertebrates (which are aquatic, typically early development forms of insects) will grow as there are fewer predators to keep their populations in check. In turn, with large numbers of macro-invertebrates, algae will decrease in population size as there is a higher demand for them as food.

Beaver by Andrew Patrick

With beavers, their impact extends beyond these food chain alterations when they are introduced to a new stream ecosystem. As ecosystem engineers, beavers actively change the physical features of freshwater environments by building their dams. Even failed or abandoned dams continue to affect the environment. Dams are incredibly capable of storing nutrients and groundwater. They affect water flow to varying degrees and can alter water temperatures. These alterations of physical qualities change the quality of life for other organisms. For example, certain organisms rely on food flowing straight into their mouth, habitat, or home and therefore thrive in fast-flowing areas of water. If that water slows down, they may not be able to survive!

In terms of understanding our streams, we already have a considerable grasp of the macro-invertebrates that inhabit them. Freshwater macro-invertebrates typically live on rocks in fast-flowing environments, like streams. They play an integral role in food chains as they consume much of the plant matter in streams and are an excellent food source for predators, both in water and on land. With the introduction of a significant change to an ecosystem, such as a beaver dam, the conditions macro-invertebrates are used to may be impacted, which will either improve or worsen their ability to survive and reproduce in the environment.

Beaver Dam by WCT Watershed Protection Program

Macro-invertebrates play an important role in regulating nutrients as they enter and leave the water. They are also incredible bioindicators, meaning their presence alone can tell us about the health of the water they are living in. Each macro-invertebrate lies on a scale of pollution tolerance, from sensitive to tolerant. In healthy freshwater systems, we see sensitive groups and a variety of species. This biodiversity tells us that the ecosystem is healthy enough to keep the maximum number of organisms happy. With this application of macro-invertebrates, we can use them to understand how beaver dams are affecting freshwater systems entirely.

The jury is still out on how beaver dams impact the existence of macro-invertebrates, but one thing is certain: beaver dams are indeed affecting them. One study by Clifford et al. (1983), found that in an Alberta, Canada stream, macro-invertebrates increased in both abundance (the number of species) and biodiversity (the variety of species) after the introduction of beavers. The study concluded that sections of the stream flowing from the beaver dam are healthier than sections flowing into the dam. On the other hand, in Utah, Washko et al. (2019) found that beaver ponds (areas completely blocked by beaver dams, creating a pond-like environment) showed lower levels of biodiversity and significantly lower populations of macro-invertebrates. The effects of beaver activity on macro-invertebrates likely depend on a variety of factors. Further research will help us better understand the overall impact beavers have on our waters.

Caddisfly by Catherine Quinn

— By Watershed Protection Program Co-Op Catherine Quinn

[1] 

Sources:

Clifford, H. F., Wiley, G. M., & Casey, R. J. (1993). Macroinvertebrates of a beaver-altered

boreal stream of Alberta, Canada, with special reference to the fauna on the dams.

Canadian Journal of Zoology, 71(7), 1439–1447. https://doi.org/10.1139/z93-199

Hood, G. A., McIntosh, A. C. S., & Hvenegaard, G. T. (2021). Ecological Compromise: Can

Alternative Beaver Management Maintain Aquatic Macroinvertebrate Biodiversity?

Wetlands, 41(8), 112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-021-01494-7

Robinson, C. T., Schweizer, P., Larsen, A., Schubert, C. J., & Siebers, A. R. (2020). Beaver

effects on macroinvertebrate assemblages in two streams with contrasting morphology.

Science of The Total Environment, 722, 137899.

Shampain, A. (2017, December). The impact of beaver dams on aquatic macroinvertebrate

communities | WALPA.

macroinvertebrate-communities/

Washko, S., Roper, B., & Atwood, T. B. (2020). Beavers alter stream macroinvertebrate

communities in north-eastern Utah. Freshwater Biology, 65(3), 579–591.


Filed Under: Nature, Watershed

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